{"id":98323,"date":"2025-01-23T11:45:09","date_gmt":"2025-01-23T19:45:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/?p=98323"},"modified":"2025-01-23T11:45:09","modified_gmt":"2025-01-23T19:45:09","slug":"down-payment-assistance-programs","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/down-payment-assistance-programs\/","title":{"rendered":"Down Payment Assistance Programs: How They Can Help You Become a Homeowner"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If you\u2019re looking to buy a home, then you know one of the major hurdles is saving up for a down payment. While it may seem intimidating to save up 20% of your home\u2019s purchase price &#8211; that doesn\u2019t have to be the case. There are thousands of down payment assistance programs available to qualifying homebuyers.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">That means you might not need to save a hefty down payment to buy a home. In this Redfin article, we\u2019ll explain what a down payment assistance program is, what programs are available, and how it can help you become a homeowner. So whether you\u2019re searching for a <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/city\/30794\/TX\/Dallas\" data-wpel-link=\"exclude\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">home in Dallas, TX<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, or a <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/city\/5665\/MI\/Detroit\" data-wpel-link=\"exclude\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">house in Detroit, MI<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, there are options available to help you own your first home.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Key takeaways<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Down payment assistance (DPA) programs give homebuyers loans and grants to help lower their down payment or closing costs.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">DPA is often for first-time homebuyers or homebuyers with low-to-moderate incomes.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Programs are available nationwide and at state, county, and city levels.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You need to qualify in order to get down payment assistance.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-86375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house.jpg\" alt=\"house in cincinnati oh\" width=\"1200\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house-945x630.jpg 945w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/cincinnati-house-450x300.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px\" \/><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What is down payment assistance?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Down payment assistance (DPA) is any type of program that helps you cover your down payment. Some programs help lower your <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/closing-costs-when-buying-a-home\/\" data-wpel-link=\"exclude\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">closing costs<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or taxes you pay. These programs are typically geared toward first-time home buyers, but there can also be assistance available for repeat home buyers.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are thousands of down payment assistance programs across the country, including nationally. The majority of these programs are offered at state, county, and city levels. The funds often come from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, or HUD, as well as employers, community organizations, and state and local governments.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">What types of down payment assistance programs are available?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are three main types of assistance programs &#8211; loans, grants, and credits. We\u2019ll go through each of them as well as some less common programs.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Forgivable loans<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are three types of loans available &#8211; forgivable, deferred payment, and low-interest loans. Forgivable loans are a second mortgage, but act as a grant since you don\u2019t have to pay back the loan as long as you follow the requirements. These requirements often include paying your mortgage on time and living in the home for a set amount of time (ex. 10 years). If you sell the home before the loan is forgiven, you\u2019ll need to pay it back.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Deferred payment loans<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Deferred payment loans are a second mortgage that you don\u2019t have to pay back immediately. The second mortgage typically covers the cost of the down payment. You\u2019ll still need to pay back the loan, but this happens when you sell the home, refinance your mortgage, or pay off your first mortgage.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Unlike forgivable loans, you will have to pay back the loan at some point. If you sell the home, it\u2019s common to use the proceeds to repay this loan. Most deferred payment loans don\u2019t charge interest, so you\u2019ll only owe the amount of the loan.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Low-interest loans\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Low-interest loans are a second mortgage that has a lower interest rate than your first loan. It\u2019s also used to cover your down payment. You\u2019ll likely need to repay this loan in installments, like your regular mortgage. As a result, you\u2019ll probably have two monthly mortgage payments. The interest rate will likely be lower, although some lenders may offer no interest on these loans.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Grants<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Grants are the most popular type of down payment assistance as it\u2019s in the form of a cash grant that you don\u2019t have to pay back. Most grants have a stipulation that you need to live in the house for a certain number of years, like 5 years, so you don\u2019t have to repay it. Grants are typically used to cover the down payment or closing costs. Sometimes these grants are considered a \u201csecond mortgage,\u201d so make sure your lender is aware.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tax credits<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tax credits most commonly take the form of mortgage credit certificates (MCC). MCCs reduce what you pay in federal taxes by lowering how much you pay in interest on your mortgage loan. There are other types of tax credits that cover property taxes, a temporary reduction in property taxes for a certain number of years.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Individual Development Accounts\/Matched Savings Programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Individual Development Accounts (IDA), also called Matched Savings Programs are a unique type of down payment program. It\u2019s a savings account that homebuyers deposit money into which is matched by either a bank, community organization, or government agency.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For example, if you put $4,500 into the account, the agency you\u2019re working with would match that amount. You\u2019d then have $9,000 in the account. This money can be used to cover your down payment. Sometimes there are strict requirements to qualify like income restrictions or employment requirements, and you may need to take a class covering financial literacy.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_85722\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-85722\" style=\"width: 1200px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-85722\" src=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280.jpg\" alt=\"Speaking to lender on loan offer\" width=\"1200\" height=\"671\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280-300x168.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280-1024x573.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280-768x429.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280-268x150.jpg 268w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280-1127x630.jpg 1127w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/GettyImages-908000280-537x300.jpg 537w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-85722\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">recep-bg via Getty Images<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Requirements for down payment assistance programs<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You\u2019ll likely have to meet certain qualifications for any type of down payment assistance program. The majority of programs are suited for first-time homebuyers, with low-to-moderate incomes. First-time homebuyers are typically classified as someone who has never bought a home or has not owned a home in the last three years.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Other typical requirements include credit score, median household income, and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/definition\/debtto-income-ratio\" data-wpel-link=\"exclude\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">debt-to-income ratio (DTI)<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. It\u2019s common to need a minimum credit score of 620 and to not exceed certain income limits. In many cases, you may also need to qualify for a 30-year fixed-rate mortgage.\u00a0 However, these requirements vary from program to program.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Many down payment assistance programs also require the following:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You must live in a certain city or county<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You must attend a first-time homebuyer class or financial classes<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You must live in the home for a set number of years (often 3 &#8211; 10 years)<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Profession &#8211; some areas may have programs specifically for teachers or doctors<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How to find down payment assistance programs\u00a0<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Each city, county, and state has their own set of down payment assistance programs. You can check the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hud.gov\/buying\/localbuying\" data-wpel-link=\"external\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"external noopener noreferrer\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HUD website<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> for information at the state level. For county and city-level programs, local websites will likely have information about available grants and loans. There are also other <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/guides\/first-time-home-buyer-programs\" data-wpel-link=\"exclude\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">first-time homebuyer resources<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that show programs you may be eligible for. You can also speak with your mortgage lender or real estate agent about programs that you may qualify for.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">How long does it take to get down payment assistance?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Since down payment assistance varies from state to local levels, the timeline will be different. If you\u2019re considering applying for a down payment assistance program, start looking before you begin your home search. It may take a while before you receive the funds, and if you\u2019re required to take a first-time homebuyer course, it will give you time to complete the class.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Expect that the process will take longer than you think and give yourself plenty of time. It can affect how long it takes you to close on the home, as your lender and the assistance program need to work together.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-85446\" src=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9.jpg\" alt=\"ranch home in puyallup with trees\" width=\"1200\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9-945x630.jpg 945w, https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Puyallup-WA-11311-92nd-Ave-E-9-450x300.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px\" \/><\/h2>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Are there other types of assistance programs available?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Depending on your qualifications and what you&#8217;re looking for, you can find programs to help &#8211; not just with down payment money, but with <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/mortgage-calculator\" data-wpel-link=\"exclude\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">mortgage payments<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and other financial aspects of homeownership. Some of the most popular include:<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Energy efficient mortgages<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Federal Housing Administration uses its<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hud.gov\/program_offices\/housing\/sfh\/eem\/energy-r\" data-wpel-link=\"external\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"external noopener noreferrer\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Energy Efficient Mortgage program<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">,<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or EEM, to let homeowners finance energy-efficient improvements like new insulation or a modern HVAC system with an FHA-insured mortgage. The VA also uses the EEM program for its loans. The cost of these improvements is added to your primary mortgage.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Purchase programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Purchasing a home in a rural area or a revitalization area is the key to taking advantage of benefits from the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Some programs allow you to save money on a home&#8217;s purchase price, such as the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hud.gov\/program_offices\/housing\/sfh\/reo\/goodn\/gnndabot\" data-wpel-link=\"external\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"external noopener noreferrer\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Good Neighbor Next Door<\/span><\/a> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">program, or to save money on interest through subsidies or low down payments with no private mortgage insurance requirements.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Home improvement loans<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Many programs, like the Energy Efficient Mortgage program and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hud.gov\/sites\/documents\/2005-09FHA.PDF\" data-wpel-link=\"external\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"external noopener noreferrer\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Section 203(k) loans<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">allow you more flexibility in buying a fixer-upper. Section 203(k) loans require a 3 percent down payment and are available to people who want to live in a home while making improvements to it.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some programs roll the costs of repairs into your monthly mortgage payment, while others consider the after-repaired value, or ARV, of the home when they&#8217;re determining how much you qualify to borrow.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Veterans programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) backs loans for qualifying veterans, service members, and some dependents and surviving spouses. If you qualify, you don&#8217;t need a down payment &#8211; your lender will finance the entire purchase price. You won&#8217;t have to pay for private mortgage insurance, either. The seller can also pay all of your closing costs so you can move into a home without having spent a dime.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Disabled homeowner programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Several types of assistance are available to disabled homeowners, including HUD&#8217;s Homeownership Voucher Program, the Social Security Administration&#8217;s SSI, and Fannie Mae&#8217;s Community HomeChoice program. Check with state housing agencies, as well as federal and nonprofit programs for disabled veterans and Habitat for Humanity.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Job-specific programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Your employer may offer a down payment assistance program, or you may be eligible for a VA loan, the Good Neighbor Next Door program (which helps law enforcement, teachers, firefighters, and emergency medical technicians buy homes in revitalization areas), or the Teacher Next Door program.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">So, is down payment assistance right for me?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Down payment assistance programs can be a great way to become a homeowner by helping cover some of your down payment. Before applying for down payment assistance, make sure to understand <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/how-much-house-can-i-afford\" data-wpel-link=\"exclude\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">how much house you can afford<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, how much money you may have for a down payment, and your future homebuying goals. If you\u2019re a first-time homebuyer, or qualify for one of the other programs, one of these assistance programs may be right for you. <\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Down payment assistance can help first-time homebuyers cover down payment and closing costs. Discover what programs and grants help you buy a home.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":537,"featured_media":86375,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"default","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"set","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[34276],"tags":[34629,34617,34642],"coauthors":[33440],"class_list":["post-98323","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-buying-a-home","tag-first-time-homebuyer","tag-home-buying-process","tag-mortgage"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v24.7 (Yoast SEO v27.7) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>How to Use Down Payment Assistance to Buy a Home | Redfin<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Down payment assistance can help first-time homebuyers cover down payment and closing costs. Discover what programs and grants help you buy a home.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.redfin.com\/blog\/down-payment-assistance-programs\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Down Payment Assistance Programs: How They Can Help You Become a Homeowner\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Down payment assistance can help first-time homebuyers cover down payment and closing costs. 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